In analytic terms, these notions imply two general patterns: (1) individuals with high SES will be less likely to profess beliefs in divine involvement and control and (2) even when they share similar levels of religious involvement as low SES groups, those with high SES should exhibit overall lower levels of belief in divine involvement and control. On one side, some scholars contend that beliefs influence the frequency of participation in religious activities (Gaede 1977; Hoge and Carroll 1978; Stark and Glock 1968). I averaged the items to create the belief in divine control index ( = .83). Finally, it should be underscored here that the WSH data are comprised of working adults. And people who attended Sunday school, CCD or a similar type of program for many years when growing up get nearly one additional question right. How strongly are religious, social and demographic factors linked with religious knowledge? This set a significant precedent for . Thus, with all else held equal, having a college degree makes a difference of 6.5 additional correct answers (out of 32 possible in this survey) compared with someone with a high school education or less. The caste system is an ancient social hierarchy based on occupation and economic status. Results for education and income are generally similar, although when both are considered simultaneously in models their individual effects vanish. Our experts can deliver a Religiosity and Socioeconomic Status essay Despite the well-established prevalence and significance of beliefs about God, however, the patterning of these beliefs across social strata remains less clear. The overall response rate is roughly 24 percent; that is, 1,721 individuals of the total number that Gallop attempted to contact (7,041) participated. At the other end of the spectrum, members of the historically black Protestant tradition and those who say their religion is nothing in particular trail other groups even after demographic factors are taken into account. In this respect, God is the uncaused first cause of the universe (Sagan 2006). Response choices are: strongly agree (1), agree (2), disagree (3), and strongly disagree (4). In table3, I repeat these same models using data from the WSH survey with the belief in divine control as the dependent variable; I also substitute subjective religiosity for the frequency of reading religious texts in model 5. The SES literalism coefficients indicate that low and high SES individuals share similar levels of divine involvement when they interpret the Bible literally (see figure4)net of religious denominational affiliation and involvement. Given the significance of such beliefs for personal and social well-being and their widespread influence in contemporary American culture, it is important to concentrate a sociological lens on these patterns. One fruitful direction involves analyses of changes in economic hardship over time and their link to changes in beliefs about Godespecially within and across other dimensions of SES. Wilson (1982), for example, underscored the differential appeal of religion according to the specifics of particular classes or social groups (p. 23). Involvement Interactions, and Control Measures (2005 Work, Stress, and Health Survey; n = 1,709), Regression of the Belief in Divine Involvement on SES, Biblical Literalism, and SES literalism (2005 Baylor Religion Survey; n = 1,558). These ideas imply that even when low SES individuals exhibit lower levels of religious involvement they will often retain a higher level of cognitive religiosity. By extension, it is plausible that low SES individuals will maintain high levels of belief in divine control and involvement apart from other aspects of the religious role. Using information from the most recent Bureau of the Census Current Population Survey, the data are weighted using information about gender, race, region, age, and education. (+1) 202-857-8562 | Fax Moreover, it predicts that SES-based differences in beliefs about divine involvement and control should be largest among those who participate less frequently and profess a weaker subjective religiosity. Less is known, however, about the content of those beliefs. There is little doubt that, overall, low SES individuals are more likely to belief in divine involvement and control. In the BRS, household income is assessed with the question: By your best estimate, what was your total household income last year, before taxes? BRS income categories were coded (by the directors of the survey) as: (1) $10,000 or less, (2) $10,001$20,000, (3) $20,001$35,000, (4) $35,001$50,000, (5) $50,001$100,000, (6) $100,001$150,000, and (7) $150,001 or more.3 The median BRS income falls in the $50,001$100,000 range. Religious stratification is one of the most common and significant forms that social hierarchies can take. My analyses focus on two potential influences that are central in sociological study of beliefs about God: SES and religious involvement. Participants in the WSH survey were asked the extent to which they agree or disagree with the following five statements: You decide what to do without relying on God, When good or bad things happen, you see it is part of God's plan for you (reverse-coded), God has decided what your life shall be (reverse-coded), You depend on God for help and guidance (reverse-coded), and There is no sense planning a lotmy fate is in God's hands (reverse-coded) (Schieman et al. Even after education, race and other factors are considered, it is still the case that atheists, Jews, agnostics and evangelical Protestants perform better than other religious groups on this survey. This concurs with Lefever's (1977) assertion that the religious believer who is serious about his commitment puts all of his activities, sacred and secular, under the control of religiously prescribed norms (p. 226). Table I repre sents a composite summary of mean religiosity scores for each social class, and the significance of the differences between means on each dimension. Although the size of the SES coefficient diminishes slightly, the negative association between SES and belief in divine involvement remains significant net of religious involvement. The finding that high SES individuals tend to report similar levels of divine involvement and control as their low SES peerswhen they share high levels of religious involvementchallenges the assertion that higher SES contributes to demythologized beliefs processes. First, it gives people a common set of beliefs and thus is an important agent of socialization (see Chapter 4 "Socialization" ). The alternative view of exposurereinforcement garners more support: The negative association between SES and the belief in divine involvement and control is null or weakly negative among highly participatory groups. The findings challenge the view that SES is uniformly associated with lower levels of beliefs about God's engagement and causal relevance. These examples demonstrate the ways that higher levels of religious participation attenuate the negative association between SES and the sense of divine involvement. The second way that religious involvement is potentially relevant involves its role as an effect modifier. Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. Put somewhat differently, this method of analysis imagines a survey respondent who is completely typical in all ways but one and calculates the impact of that one factor on the respondents level of religious knowledge. Thus, as observed for each of the forms of religious involvement, the association between SES and belief in divine involvement is also contingent upon beliefs about the Bible.5, The Association Between SES and the Belief in Divine Involvement across Categories of Biblical Literalism (2005 Baylor Religion Survey). Table 2 reports on rates of self-rated health by each socioeconomic and religious factor in each country. The ways that religious involvement might neutralize SES-linked demythologized belief processes deserves a bit more attention. In the past, social stratification was often based on religion; and even today we can witness the influence of this in societies all over the world, claim scholars of sociology. These contrasts between low and high SES categories demonstrate the ways that higher levels of religious participation attenuate the negative association between SES and divine control. | 46 There is a steep education gradient in health. This notion has deep theological roots. Within any given culture there will almost always be some form of hierarchy. flashcard sets. The final sample was based on: (1) telephone numbers for residential households; (2) households agreeing to answer screening questions; (3) successfully screened households with one or more employed adults; and (4) eligible households with a sub-sampled adult who agreed to participate in the interview. 17.1 Religion as a Social Institution Learning Objectives Describe the difference between sacred beliefs and profane beliefs. The first section uses data from the BRS to examine belief in divine involvement as the focal-dependent variable. Iceland was one of the last places in Europe to accept Christianity. These patterns concur with the claim that low SES groups tend to hold more orthodox beliefs than high SES individualsregardless of their actual participation in religious activities (Van Roy et al. The Baylor Religion Survey (BRS) is a nationally representative survey of 1,721 respondents. Moreover, the social inequality-religion dynamic remains relevant in contemporary American society (Smith and Faris 2005), particularly in the recent rise of what is known as the prosperity gospel (Hunt 1998; Luo 2006). The main groups that make up the caste system in India are as follows, in descending order of social status: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. One possibility is that the negative association between SES and beliefs is attenuated by higher levels of religious involvement. The SES-based secularization of belief processes described above imply that SES reduces supernatural-mythological orthodoxy regardless of involvement. Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion. Nonetheless, more nuanced substantive and theoretical arguments and more sophisticated methodological procedures are needed in future research to more effectively disentangle the causal ordering among belief and behavior. This view also shares conceptual terrain with Shiner's (1967) notion of secularization which finds a transposition from sacred to secular explanations for events and outcomes in daily life. In my view, Krause's (2007) summary of theoretical and empirical views about this issue is compelling: Religious experiences, and the beliefs that are based upon them, are the product of a social process (p. 523). In analytical terms, this hypothesis requires the test of SES-by-religious involvement interaction terms. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oxfordjournals.org. One criticism of the current data is that it is difficult to determine whether or not individuals profess a belief in divine involvement and control simply because of a generalized adherence to standard religious scripts and schemas. These beliefs often include the conviction that God is a conscious, omnipotent being who has explicit expectations and desires for each human being (Black 1999; Stark and Finke 2000). Thinking Outside the West: Religious Change from the Nation-State to the Global-Market Regime, Why Baby Boomers Turned from Religion: Shaping Belief and Belonging, 19452021, by ABBY DAY, Religion, Spirituality, and Secularity among Millennials: The Generation Shaping American and Canadian Trends, by SARAH WILKINS-LAFLAMME, Passion Plays: How Religion Shaped Sports in North America, by RANDALL BALMER, The Womens Mosque of America: Authority and Community in U.S. Islam, by Tazeen M. Ali, About the Association for the Sociology of Religion, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/15/nyregion/15prosperity.html, Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic, Bible is an ancient book of history and legends, Bible is perfectly true, but should not be taken literally, Don't know response to literalism question, SES Bible is an ancient book of history and legends, SES Bible is perfectly true, but should not be taken literally, SES Don't know response to literalism question, Copyright 2023 Association for the Sociology of Religion. The social-climbers who continue going to a church often conform to the religious views of their new circle, which means that people who once considered themselves Baptist, for example, may begin to attend churches with a more upper class appeal, such as the Presbyterian church. Generally, we can see it as: High Status: You're well respected due to your wealth, career, or social influence. Several examples of religious stratification from different parts of the world will be provided. I present these analyses separately from the models shown in table2 because of conceptual distinctions between literalism and the other forms of religious involvement. This is one feature of the plausibility structure that Berger (1967) delineates in the maintenance of religious worldviews. Involvement Interactions, and Control Measures (2005 Baylor Religion Survey; n = 1,558). How strongly are religious, social and demographic factors linked with religious knowledge? The sample demographic characteristics are similar to those in other datasets such the 2005 American Community Survey (ACS). While these patterns initially appear to support the demythologized beliefs hypothesis, further analyses uncovered more support for the exposurereinforcement hypothesis. Eligible participants are 18 years of age or older and participating in the paid labor force. These findings are reported in the American Piety in the 21st Century: New Insights to the Depth and Complexity of Religion in the United States (http://www.baylor.edu/isreligion/). The multiple regression analysis begins with a statistical model that includes seven main variables: religious affiliation, education level, race and ethnicity, gender, age, region, and marital status. Social Class and Religious Belief Level: AS, A-Level Board: AQA, Edexcel, OCR, Eduqas, WJEC Last updated 17 Jul 2018 Share : There are a number of key differences in relation to religious belief and social class, both in terms of overall religiosity and the membership and practice of particular religions, denominations, sects, etc. The results of the survey suggest that there are many traits that are linked with levels of religious knowledge. 10 Three measures of socio-economic status have been used. Regression of the Belief in Divine Control on SES, Religious Involvement, SES Religious, Note: Unstandardized regression coefficients are shown with standard errors in parentheses. Holding other factors constant, black and Hispanic respondents score significantly lower on the religious knowledge survey than do whites. Within complex, diverse societies, powerful majority religions often hold their social power over the heads of less powerful minority religions. Largely Positive. Regression of the Belief in Divine Involvement on SES, Religious Involvement, SES Religious. But which of these traits are strongly connected with greater knowledge, and which are related only tangentially, if at all? Examine social stratification in the United States and understand the roles of social prestige, wealth, and power in it. Those who attended religious private schools as children also perform better, giving an extra 1.3 correct answers than the national average. In societies that are home to many different religions, religious stratification often involves a dominant majority religion maintaining authoritative power over smaller minority religions. The religious stratification that emerged in the United States during the 18th and 19th centuries presented Protestant Christianity as the clearly dominant religion. Despite the increasing popularity of these recent polemics about religion, there is strong evidence that the vast majority of Americans maintain the belief in a personal God (Froese and Bader 2007), and these beliefs remain influential in many aspects of American social and political life (Wills 2007). It is well established that belief in God is pervasive and influential in contemporary American societybut what do people believe about the nature of God's presence in everyday life? Focal associations are established: SES is associated negatively with beliefs about divine involvement and divine control. Model 1 of table2 regresses divine involvement on SES and control measures. As shown in model 1, women and African-Americans tend to report significantly higher levels of divine control compared with men and Whites. In supplemental analyses, I also assess whether or not the association between SES and the belief in divine involvement is contingent upon individuals' beliefs about the Bible as the literal word of God. Five aspects of religiosity and attitudes to religion are taken into account: church-related religiosity (religious belief and practice), spirituality . Feelings toward religious groups.
How Often Do Employers Sue Employees,
Kronshage Residence Hall,
Asmr Eating Chicken + Cheese,
Homes For Sale In Sacramento Under $500,000,
Articles S
social status and religion
